Topics in medicine and surgeryAvian Analgesia
Section snippets
Preemptive Analgesia
The provision of analgesia before injury can reduce the intensity of pain. Tissue injury can induce prolonged changes in CNS activity that later influence the responses to subsequent input, which contribute to postoperative pain.9 Nociceptive (pain) stimulation that reaches the spinal cord can produce a state of spinal neuron hyperexcitability known as central sensitization. In mammals, neural changes induced by nociceptive stimulation can be prevented by administration of analgesics before
Analgesic Selection
In mammals, opioids and alpha2-agonists are often chosen for acute pain. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are frequently used to treat inflammatory, chronic pain.4 NSAIDs may also be used effectively for postoperative pain. The duration, severity, and type of injury and quality of pain will direct selection of an appropriate pain-management strategy.
Summary
Pain perception in birds is believed to be analogous to that of mammals. Thus, invasive and painful procedures should always be accompanied by appropriate analgesia and anesthesia. A balanced approach to anesthesia and treating postsurgical or injury pain is not only ethical but also promotes healing, reduces hospitalization times, and provides for greater client satisfaction. Providing appropriate pain relief for birds involves a consideration of the type and severity of pain along with
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Cited by (40)
Anesthesia and analgesia in birds
2023, Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory AnimalsLocoregional Anesthesia in Exotic Pets
2019, Veterinary Clinics of North America - Exotic Animal PracticeCitation Excerpt :The LA is injected into the testicle and the spermatic cord in volumes up to 1 mL per testicle, depending on the size of the animal.5,14,18–20 The brachial plexus block has been described in anesthetized or sedated individuals belonging to multiple avian species (Fig. 5).21–29 The clinical effects of the brachial plexus block in birds were reported to be variable, and it was suggested that the sensory block may be concentration dependent and/or volume of LA dependent.25
Cardiovascular tolerance of intravenous bupivacaine in broiler chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) anesthetized with isoflurane
2017, Veterinary Anaesthesia and AnalgesiaCitation Excerpt :It has been suggested that birds are more sensitive to local anesthetics than mammals (Hawkins & Pascoe 2007; Ludders & Matthews 2007). Toxic effects in birds have been reported in anesthesia and exotic medicine textbooks and avian analgesia literature reviews (Machin 2005; Lierz & Korbel 2012). One frequently cited study described intra-articular administration of bupivacaine (approximately 2 mg kg−1) relieving pain in 72 chickens with experimentally induced arthritis (Hocking et al. 1997).
Neoplastic diseases in avian species. section II.
2015, Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and SurgeryNerve stimulator-guided sciatic-femoral nerve block in raptors undergoing surgical treatment of pododermatitis
2015, Veterinary Anaesthesia and AnalgesiaCitation Excerpt :The lack of clear guidelines addressing the use of local anaesthetics in birds was an issue during the phases of study design and planning. Recommended lidocaine dosages for avian species range between 4 and 20 mg kg−1 (Machin 2005; Figueiredo et al. 2008), and it is reported that, as in mammals, seizures and cardiac arrest may result from local anaesthetics overdose in birds (Machin 2005). In order to prevent complications, and also considering the difficulties in extrapolating drug dosages between classes of avian species, it was decided to use a very conservative lidocaine dose.
Cardiovascular tolerance of intravenous lidocaine in broiler chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) anesthetized with isoflurane
2015, Veterinary Anaesthesia and AnalgesiaCitation Excerpt :In Grono's study, the budgerigars (n = 4) were injected with doses of lidocaine ranging between 172 and 345 mg kg−1; doses far exceeding those recommended for use in any animal. As a result of that report and out of concern for accurate dosing in small birds (Murray 1967; Fedde 1978), the current recommendation is that the dose of lidocaine in birds should not exceed 4 mg kg−1 (Huckabee 2000; Paul-Murphy & Ludders 2001; Carpenter 2005; Machin 2005; Hawkins & Pascoe 2007; Ludders & Matthews 2007) Recent studies suggest that this dose may be too conservative thus limiting the usefulness of lidocaine as an analgesic and anesthetic agent in birds. Studies investigating the pharmacokinetics of intravenous (IV) lidocaine in chickens indicate that it has a shorter half-life than in humans, pigs, dogs, cats, and rabbits (da Cunha et al. 2012).